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It includes a PID controller, a stage plant , feedback loop, reference position command Xr and actual stage position X. X is sensed by an encoder or by any other positioning feedback device. They are the most influential mechanical parameters on the dynamic performance of most positioning systems. Input parameters are in yellow boxes.

Results are in blue boxes. Settling time after a step input is shown on the upper chart. Frequency responses of the plant PID controller as well as closed-loop and open-loop transfer functions are shown on the bottom. Access this tool at optineer. Also use the tool for learning by changing system parameters and clicking RUN again to observe their effects on results.

As shown in figure two, a driving motor force F acts on the stage block as an input and results in the actual stage position X as an output.

Transfer functions and phase angles The explicit relationship between the output X and input Xr of the closed-loop servo system requires simultaneous solution of the two differential equations. The solution is simplified from differential equations in time domain t to algebraic equations in frequency domain s by using their Laplace transform. The Laplace transform H s of our closed-loop transfer function is represented:. The phase of output X with respect to input Xr is measured in degrees.

That makes it a positive feedback inside the controller and a source for possible instability of the closed-loop servo system. Plant frequency response and stability of closed-loop servo systems When we RUN the webtool after clicking EXAMPLE, the results in the blue boxes below the stage parameters show two important stage characteristics of any automation system — the lowest natural resonance frequency and the damping coefficient.

High performance machines are typically designed for high stiffness K and low moving mass M to get the highest value for the lowest natural frequency. The frequency response Bode plot of the stage is shown in Figure three: Frequency response of the stage plant.

In this figure, we see that the gain has an approximately constant value all the way up to the natural frequency. At the natural frequency, the gain increases with a peak bounded by the magnitude of the damping coefficient. Similarly, the phase starts at zero degrees in low frequencies. Designing hydraulic systems to perform flawlessly under less-than-ideal conditions is hard enough. The Lee Company. Plus many applications in between.

If you require precise fluid control, and absolute reliability, go with the experts. Contact The Lee Company. C o n t r o l Real dynamic systems have multiple natural frequencies and usually multiple axes.

But the single-axis model in this webtool is a good performance estimator of most positioning systems. Optimal choices for the simple model have mass, stiffness, and damping parameters that yield the lowest natural frequency and damping coefficient of the more complex system. These two-system characteristics are easily measured for any complex system by an impact test and an accelerometer that traces settling time decay.

PID controller frequency response Many control systems have in addition to a position-feedback loop inner velocity and current feedback loops. Yet they all share the same basic closed-loop transfer function H s as shown in figure three. The difference is in the complexity of their H s expression and the numbers of zeros and poles, with which the controller filters are shaped. A zero is a frequency at which the gain becomes zero, and a pole is the frequency at which the gain goes to infinity.

Although these complex filters are beyond the scope of this tool, the PID as used in our model is considered a classic filter, which is used in many controllers. It is simple having only one pole and two zeros , relatively easy to understand, and a good one with which to start training for an intuitive understanding of servo-system performance.

M o t i o n When we click RUN, the corner-points results of the integral and derivative gains appear in the blue boxes below the yellow PID parameters. Corner points are the frequencies where the integral gain and the derivative gain cross the proportional gain. Together they define the shape of a trough, as shown in Figure four: Frequency response of the PID controller. Looking at the gain of the PID frequency response in Figure four: Frequency response of the PID controller, we see that the integral contribution on the left side of the trough amplifies the error signal at low frequencies and attenuates it at high frequencies.

The derivative on the right side amplifies the high frequencies and attenuates the low frequencies. The proportional gain in between the two corner frequencies defines the bottom of the trough. So if we want to reshape the trough and move the corner point of the integral gain to the left for example we decrease the integral gain. But if we want to move the corner point of the derivative gain to the right, we decrease the derivative gain and vice versa.

Similarly, if we want to raise the bottom of the trough we increase the proportional gain The reader may test these trends by making the changes in the webtool and observing the results on the trough position and shape.

In a general machine design, the proportional gain Kp and the motor constant Kf act as mechanical stiffeners K which improve the response time. The derivative gain Kd acts as a mechanical damper B which attenuate high oscillations.

The integral gain Ki may act in some cases as a mechanical attenuator such as the inertial effect of a moving mass M. However, in positioning systems it is mostly used in overcoming position errors due to friction. These lead screw and ball screw actuators offer the benefits of a space saving design, fast and simple assembly, long life, and a competitive price.

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Our DW series double wide is engineered to create a wider mounting platform while still maintaining the same low profile height as our standard width DL actuators. This double wide design is ideal for applications that need a greater carriage mounting area or where axial play must be minimized. Open-loop frequency response and phase margin When we multiply the two transfer functions — including the plant G s and controller K s — we create the open-loop transfer function K s G s , as shown for our EXAMPLE in Figure five: Frequency response of the open-loop transfer function.

The open-loop frequency response is an important visual aid for phase margin and gain margin, which are the indicators of system stability. The physical meaning of this expression is that when an output.

This positive feedback tends increase the position error instead of reducing it —potentially making the system unstable. To become unstable, the feedback of actual position X needs to be positive, but it also must be equal or greater than the reference signal Xr with a gain equal or greater than 1.

In this unstable condition, the servo controller pumps in external energy to the system that continuously increases the oscillation amplitude of the stage. If we look at the response to the step input in time domain as shown in Figure six: System response to a step input in time. Centralia St. Elkhorn, WI Phone: This is a safety margin to stability, which is called phase margin.

Bandwidth considerations for design work Another aspect of the closed-loop transfer function H s is that when the open-loop gain K s G s is very high, the closed-loop system gain is about 1. When the open-loop gain is very low, the closed-loop transfer function resembles the open-loop transfer function.

The frequency at that point is called the position bandwidth. Consider one example. So we expect the servo system to drive the stage with a very small position error in all frequencies lower than the bandwidth. Above the bandwidth frequency, the servo system may be incapable of following the input position without error. Similarly, if disturbing forces act on the stage at higher frequencies than the bandwidth, the servo may be incapable of rejecting them, and other means such as feedforward loops — beyond the scope of this article may be required.

A fourth is mounted to a table and wheeled between tasks. The application required no scripting and was created by a journeyman machinist with minimal training. Scan code to read case study and watch the video: www. Here, we simply add a zero to the stiffness value and then click RUN. We see that natural frequency increased as expected by a factor of sqrt 10 to Also notice that the bandwidth dropped from its original value of 10 to about 1 Hz and the settling-time response became sluggish.

This shift decreased the position bandwidth and slowed down the stage. To increase the low-frequency gain which was lost in the previous iteration we may try to increase the integral gain Ki by a factor of 10 by adding a 0 to the integral gain value Ki and clicking RUN. Results in Figure seven: Servo tuning process with PI gain changes show the left side of the trough increased, bandwidth went back to about 10 Hz, and the resulting response became faster yet oscillatory.

As mentioned, this is one condition to ensure system stability. Another condition for stability is gain margin — the distance in dB between the zero-dB line and the open-. Figure eight shows it to be about 15 dB, which occurs at about 80 Hz.

The chart in figure eight also shows the phase margin and the bandwidth as discussed earlier. The rationale of the gain-margin requirement for stability is like that of the phase margin.

When the phase is , we need to ensure that output is lower than the input with a gain magnitude of less than 1. Otherwise, the servo will command the motor to add increasing energy to the system, which increases output indefinitely — and makes the system unstable. Results may be noticeable as loud audible noise, high vibration, and at high enough gain and low enough damping a possible catastrophic failure.

Servo systems are typically tuned to gain margins greater than 15 dB. Mechanical improvements for better design performance To attenuate the ringing effect as shown in figure seven and shorten the settling time response, we can try to increase the mechanical damping. As shown in figure nine, increasing the mechanical damping B by a factor of 10 gives a smoother motion profile and reduced settling time — from longer than msec in the previous iteration to msec in this one.

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System optimization with multiple iterations We may continue the iterative process of tuning system parameters for optimal performance by trial and error or by recommended tuning processes. Several widely used tuning techniques involve a PID parameter that is changed until the stage starts ringing. Then, the parameter value is reduced and the next parameter is increased until it resonates the system again. This process continues until the designer gets a good settling profile and the settling time is minimized to an acceptable value.

An example of what a good tuning profile may look like in time domain is shown in Figure ten: Optimal system performance. Settling time in this iteration is reduced to Note that the webtool presented in this article is provided as a courtesy of Optinet Inc.

The webtool is primarily intended as a self-study tutorial of simultaneous effects that PID and mechanical parameters have on the performance and stability of automated mechanical systems. Innovative design enhancements make flat cables strong candidates for applications where round cable was once the natural choice.

Edited by: Mary C. Flat cable has been around for about 60 years, since Cicoil invented the ribbon cable for IBM computers in Over the decades it has been a favorite in high end computing, military and aerospace, robotics and motion control devices. Its advantages include superior flexibility, electronic noise abatement, and packaging efficiency. Its limiting factor over this time has been the need for unique termination techniques—prepping for connectors has largely required hand work.

A new type of flat cable has been developed by Cicoil Corporation that promises to put this last hurdle into the past, opening the potential for engineers to take advantage of flat cable advantages while using the common cable prep tools and automated processes currently in use with round cables. Reliability — The simplicity of flat cable with its parallel conductor geometry eliminates many of the common sources of wiring errors and malfunctions.

Conductors are registered one-toone with the terminating connector or board so proper contact assignment is almost automatic. Weight reduction — The use of flat cable often eliminates much of the conventional wire weight. Such things as redundant insulating materials, fillers and tapes are unnecessary. In addition, the composite flat cable construction is mechanically strong enough to eliminate the need to include large conductors for strength. The copper cross-section can thus be reduced to only that necessary to carry current loads or to satisfy voltage drop requirements.

Space efficiency — Elimination of unnecessary insulation,. Additionally, their low profile enables flat cables to hug surfaces and take advantage of tight or normally unused space. A rectangular cross-section lets flat cables stack or layer with almost no wasted space between cables, providing maximum conductor density for a given volume.

Flexibility — Flat cable is extremely flexible when bent in the plane of its thin cross-section. This flexibility has been used in applications where continuous or high flexing is necessary, as in drawers, doors, rotating arms, and so forth. Greater strength — Flat cables have high strength because all conductors and insulators equally share tensile loads.

Consistent electrical qualities — The conductor spacing is fixed and the geometry of the cable is constant. This geometry brings consistent electrical qualities that include impedance, capacitance, inductance, time, delay, crosstalk and attenuation.

Greater current-carrying capacity — Flat cables. Consequently, flat cables dissipate heat more efficiently. This thermal efficiency lets them handle a higher current level for a given temperature rise and conductor cross-section. This minimizes time delays between signals within a given flat cable. High-density interconnections — Flat cable has a high wire-to-cable cross-sectional density.

So layers of flat cable pack more efficiently and provide a higher conductor density than in round cables. Ease of handling — Flat cable folds and bends readily, conforms to the mounting area, fastens easily with clamps, adhesive, or double-faced tape, eliminating the installation and lacing difficulties associated with round wire cabling. Conductors are visible and in a fixed position within the dielectric, a factor that simplifies coding, inspection, and circuit tracing.

Most cable is round, which is a generally useful geometry. These layers are there to retain a round profile and to minimize frictional heating as the cable moves. Surrounding the wires and fillers is an outer jacket that holds it all together and. But, while round cable is normally fine for general use, there are drawbacks with this construction. Because it incorporates these multiple layers of wires, insulation, and fillers, heat dissipation from the wires can be problematic in round cable.

Despite measures to reduce it there is still frictional heat produced inside the cable during repetitive motion cycles. Add to this the issue of electrical impedance alteration as conductors inside the cable move relative to one another. With flat cable each conductor is kept parallel with neighboring conductors to form the flat profile. Similarly, the conductors in the cable all have the same physical and electrical length. Thus signal skewing and differential time delays between signals in the cable stay at a minimum.

Flat cable, as produced by Cicoil, isolates each conductor within the cable, keeping them stable and stationary. The result is that they need no low-friction tapes or fillers. This has the added advantage of reducing both weight and volume, which provides maximum packaging efficiency.

And the greater surface to volume ratio of the flat form factor also dissipates heat far better. The larger surface area and heat dissipating capability enables. Whether your application is for precise motion control or for general power transmission, there are several gear technologies that can do the job. But which one does it best? Only DieQua offers the widest range of gearmotors, speed reducers and servo gearheads along with the experience and expertise to help you select the optimal solution to satisfy your needs.

C a b l e s flat cables to carry a higher current for a given temperature rise, and for conductors of a given cross section. Furthermore, the flat form factor means that within the plane of its thin cross section, flat cables exhibit far more inherent flexibility than equivalent round cables. Ultimately, where signal-to-noise purity, flexibility, heat, weight and volume efficiencies are paramount, flat cables have better inherent performance values than found in round cable.

Until now round cable deficiencies have been tolerated, and engineered around, because it is very common and tooling exists for efficient terminating and assembly. Our gearmotors, motors and controls are engineered to give you flawless performance year after year. From design to delivery, you can count on Bodine for the best gearmotor solution.

A new generation of flat cable combines ease of use with inherent advantages. Called EZ-Flexx, it is constructed to be as easy to work with as common round cables, while also providing a long flex life and all the other features and benefits of traditional, highperformance flat cable. Ordinary manual or automated wire stripping tools can handle the stripping process.

Conductors comprising an EZ-Flexx flat cable are easily split from the cable body revealing a traditional round. The process is straightforward: Split out the individual conductors in the cable, strip the outer jacket from the end of the conductors, strip the inner conductor insulation, and apply the connector in the usual way. It is useful to understand the capabilities of modern EZ-Flexx flat cable by examining some older flat cabling technologies.

As noted earlier, the flat ribbon cable was introduced by Cicoil in for early mainframe computers. Ribbon cable allowed companies like IBM to replace bulky, stiff round cables with a low-profile alternative that could be terminated easily through use of insulation displacement connectors IDCs.

Ribbon cable is inexpensive and has a standard geometry. A point to note is that ribbon cable is not really comparable to modern flat cable such as EZ-Flexx. Plus, ribbon cables use just a single. And finally, ribbon cable can emit electromagnetic interference in the absence of extra shielding. Another type of flat cable uses a simple external sheath, often of PTFE branded by Dupont as Teflon , to enclose bundles of conductors.

Unlike ribbon cable or extruded flat cable like EZ-Flexx, wires in the PTFE jacket are not held in place within the jacketing material.

They can creep from their initial position, or be pulled out of place, by forces from the terminating connections. To head off such difficulties, PTFE flat cable may employ clamps at regular intervals along the. PTFE jackets are also relatively brittle, and can crack with repetitive flexing, exposing the internal wires.

Another type of flat conductor technology is that of flex circuits. These are basically flexible versions of printed circuit boards. They are usually comprised of conductive traces either screen printed or plated onto, or sandwiched between, flexible plastic substrates.

The usual application for flex circuits is in forming a connection between circuit boards where space is at a premium and the geometries involved are difficult for ordinary connectors to handle. Flex circuits. Get inspired with his keynote, then discover a full spectrum of industry solutions ushering in a new era of manufacturing — all on one show floor.

Six leading shows. One powerful event. June 13 – 15, Jacob K. Make the Connections. Gain the Insights. Moreover, because their conductors have dimensions that are on the order of circuit board traces, flex circuits have a limited ability to handle high power levels or lengthy trace runs. Flat versus contoured cable. Cicoil extruded flat cables are defined as a group of conductors electrical, liquid or gas tubing, fiber-optics aligned in parallel, and completely, seamlessly encapsulated in an insulating, protective jacket.

Cicoil invented the patented extrusion process employed to manufacture this type of flat cable. EZ-Flexx flat cables consist of a variety of color-coded PFA-insulated electrical conductors, and Teflon or polyurethane tubing elements, which are encapsulated overall within an ultra-pure, engineered rubber jacket.

This proprietary engineered rubber is called Flexx-Sil, and delivers a number of useful properties. The distinguishing feature of EZFlexx flat cable is the combination of roundprofile conductors extruded with a Flexx-Sil encapsulation that maintains the individual round wire form factor needed for common hand and automated stripping equipment.

A thin Flexx-Sil rubber strip — part of the overall extrusion — connects each of the individual elements to form the flat cable. Multiple conductor bundles can be separated out from a single cable, each terminated with their own connector.

Each conductor is kept parallel with neighboring conductors. Virtually any type of electrical conductors required for power, signal, video and data may incorporated into EZ-Flexx cable.

This includes bare wire, insulated and shielded conductors, twisted pair, tri-axial, and coax, etc. EZ-Flexx flat cables work well in applications characterized by extreme environments, motion, and challenging space constraints.

They are particularly durable, and advantageous where other kinds of cable fall short. EZ-Flexx cable excels at motion applications because the wire is extremely supple, as it is made from multiple bundles of fine AWG base strands. This contrasts. Because a flat profile takes up less volume than comparative round wire when stacked or bundled, EZ-Flexx saves valuable space.

These cables are encapsulated with jackets made of Flexx-Sil. From inspiration and advice to referrals and job opportunities, your contacts can help you tackle tough challenges.

C a b l e s Flat cable, like this one pictured in black and white, was first used on mainframe computers. Flexx-Sil rubber is extruded seamlessly around each cable element to form a single flat cable, and it is crystal clear so the individual conductors are visible. And the PFA jacket insulating each of the conductors is color coded for easy gauge size identification anywhere along the cable length.

Flexx-Sil provides flexibility while protecting conductors against sudden impact, severe vibration, and extreme G forces. Flexx-Sil requires no conduit for protection. It is tear resistant, and is self-healing from small punctures. And it maintains flexibility and operation integrity in extreme temperatures, as already noted. Flexx-Sil has passed UL 94V0 flammability testing. It is also waterproof including immersion , resists most chemicals, and operates for years in intense UV and sunlight conditions.

EZ-Flexx flat cable has introduced a new paradigm in flat cable design — one that reduces the need to engineer around the performance limitations of round cable. The innovative cable marries flat cable performance-enhancing attributes such as Flexx-Sil jacketing and ultra-flex, fine-stranded wire conductors, with a physical profile matching that of standard wires found in common round cable.

EZ-Flexx introduces the first flat cable ready for use with industrystandard assembly tooling and presents a costeffective solution. When progress comes at you fast, learning keeps you competitive. The material construction of the pumps and actuators has been important, of course, but even a hundred years ago the technology existed to build steel components capable of thousands of pounds influential contributor to high power of fluid power systems realized today.

A seal has one job; separate two spaces from each other to prevent fluid air or liquid from reaching the other side. The seal can get more advanced, such as with a dynamic seal designed to separate high pressure fluid while allowing movement between two sliding or rotating surfaces.

The O-ring is literally as elementary as a seal can be; simply a round cord of rubber shaped in a circle. It is typically a static seal, meaning it remains stationary to prevent pressurized fluid from escaping a pump case, cylinder cap or cartridge valve et al. However, they can be used in economical dynamic applications, courtesy of Freudenberg-NOK such as a rod or piston seal in an air cylinder, or the spool seal in a directional valve.

When used as a static seal, there are only considerations for pressure capacity and fluid compatibility. Higher pressure O-rings are made from a harder synthetic rubber to prevent extrusion out of gaps in the components. Also, should exotic fluids be used in a hydraulic system, synthetic polymers resistant to these fluids can be used to improve longevity. Sealing between two moving components is critical to any fluid power system, because without that movement, a cylinder is just a steel rod and a motor is just a shaft.

The challenge in sealing two There is a balance between these two extremes, and often the individual application dictates what type of seal is used. The lip seal is the most common seal used in dynamic applications, because it exerts little friction—especially at low pressure—but its inherent nature ensures excellent sealing at high pressure.

The lip seal cross section often looks like a U, so it is often referred to as a U-Cup. The shape. You can also see by the shape of the U-Cup that pressure exerted upon the seal forces the lips apart, increasing sealing as pressure rises. Lips seals tend to have less static friction than other types of seals, such as an O-ring combined with backup rings.

Unfortunately, the U-Cup has poor sealing at low pressure, especially in static applications where the cylinder is meant to hold a load. More advanced seals have been developed, which marry various technologies resulting in a more superior all-around seal. The loaded U-Cup is still a U-Cup, so it has the effect of increasing sealing as pressure rises. Although the level of pressureinduced sealing is less than a full U-Cup, it provides an excellent compromise between two mechanisms.

A further evolution of the loaded U-Cup is the crown seal, which looks liked an inverted loaded U-cup with the O-Ring on the bottom side. The crown seal, which can be molded or machined from one pieced of polymer or made from two to four components, is excellent for very high pressure applications. How a seal is installed is just as important as it shape or composition.

With half the bend radius of most R13 and R15 hoses, the Eaton EC X-FLEX spiral hydraulic hose is significantly easier to route in tight spaces, helping installers use less force and less hose per job. Whether an O-Ring, piston seal, shaft seal or mechanical seal, the cavity dimensions must be accurate as to prevent damage, leakage, friction, increased wear or fitment issues. All seal manufacturers list the seal installation requirements in their catalogues, so be sure to heed them.

After the seal type and installation is carefully considered, the specifics of the application must be considered. Early dynamic hydraulic seals were made from leather, which would be pressed or molded into usable U-cup or V-packing shapes capable of holding over 1, psi or more. Dynamic seals could also have been made from impregnated fiber materials, which can also be moulded.

Static seals could have been made from cork or even natural rubber. Most naturally sourced materials are perfectly suited to handle a fair magnitude of pressure, but were poor for longevity. As synthetic rubber technology improved, they antiquated the use of natural materials in fluid power applications. Buna Nitrile synthetic rubber is now the most common material used for hydraulic component sealing, as it has good general fluid compatibility, is easy to manufacture, and when properly applied, is capable of high pressure applications.

Exotic fluids, such as high-water based fluids used in fire resistant hydraulic applications, are not compatible with nitrile. In these cases, polyurethane is used, which is suitable for use with additives such as glycol.

Polyurethane is also excellent for high pressure and high temperature applications, although if extreme heat is seen, there are other options. For high temperature applications, fluorocarbon aka Viton seals are often used. The downside to fluorocarbon is that it is softer than what can be had in nitrile. Because of its softness, Viton is often de-rated for pressure—such as a piston lip seal, for example. The softness of rubber is rated using shore hardness or durometer. A higher durometer rubber is more rigid and resistant to forming than the jelly I described earlier.

Standard 70 durometer nitrile rubber is good for general applications where pressure is moderate. As pressure increases, seals can be damaged or extruded, so 80 or 90 durometer polymers can be applied, which resist deformation better.

Seals are indeed the unsung heroes of fluid power. They are necessary for hydraulic to achieve its legendary might, but are often overlooked for their importance. A little thought put into seals will ensure your fluid power application is efficient, reliable and performs optimally. Highly remote locations call for Tadiran batteries. Battery replacement is costly and often dangerous work. With an annual self-discharge rate of just 0.

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Tadiran Batteries Marcus Ave. Advanced lithium batteries extend the reach of WirelessHART and other communications protocols to help the IoT expand into extreme environments.

Nearly 30 million HART-enabled devices are currently in use worldwide, supporting a wide range of applications, including process control and asset management, safety systems, machine-tomachine M2M , and system control and data automation SCADA.

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At the natural frequency, the gain increases with a peak bounded by the magnitude of the damping coefficient. Similarly, the phase starts at zero degrees in low frequencies. Designing hydraulic systems to perform flawlessly under less-than-ideal conditions is hard enough.

The Lee Company. Plus many applications in between. If you require precise fluid control, and absolute reliability, go with the experts. Contact The Lee Company. C o n t r o l Real dynamic systems have multiple natural frequencies and usually multiple axes. But the single-axis model in this webtool is a good performance estimator of most positioning systems. Optimal choices for the simple model have mass, stiffness, and damping parameters that yield the lowest natural frequency and damping coefficient of the more complex system.

These two-system characteristics are easily measured for any complex system by an impact test and an accelerometer that traces settling time decay. PID controller frequency response Many control systems have in addition to a position-feedback loop inner velocity and current feedback loops. Yet they all share the same basic closed-loop transfer function H s as shown in figure three.

The difference is in the complexity of their H s expression and the numbers of zeros and poles, with which the controller filters are shaped. A zero is a frequency at which the gain becomes zero, and a pole is the frequency at which the gain goes to infinity.

Although these complex filters are beyond the scope of this tool, the PID as used in our model is considered a classic filter, which is used in many controllers.

It is simple having only one pole and two zeros , relatively easy to understand, and a good one with which to start training for an intuitive understanding of servo-system performance. M o t i o n When we click RUN, the corner-points results of the integral and derivative gains appear in the blue boxes below the yellow PID parameters.

Corner points are the frequencies where the integral gain and the derivative gain cross the proportional gain. Together they define the shape of a trough, as shown in Figure four: Frequency response of the PID controller.

Looking at the gain of the PID frequency response in Figure four: Frequency response of the PID controller, we see that the integral contribution on the left side of the trough amplifies the error signal at low frequencies and attenuates it at high frequencies. The derivative on the right side amplifies the high frequencies and attenuates the low frequencies. The proportional gain in between the two corner frequencies defines the bottom of the trough.

So if we want to reshape the trough and move the corner point of the integral gain to the left for example we decrease the integral gain. But if we want to move the corner point of the derivative gain to the right, we decrease the derivative gain and vice versa.

Similarly, if we want to raise the bottom of the trough we increase the proportional gain The reader may test these trends by making the changes in the webtool and observing the results on the trough position and shape.

In a general machine design, the proportional gain Kp and the motor constant Kf act as mechanical stiffeners K which improve the response time. The derivative gain Kd acts as a mechanical damper B which attenuate high oscillations. The integral gain Ki may act in some cases as a mechanical attenuator such as the inertial effect of a moving mass M. However, in positioning systems it is mostly used in overcoming position errors due to friction.

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Open-loop frequency response and phase margin When we multiply the two transfer functions — including the plant G s and controller K s — we create the open-loop transfer function K s G s , as shown for our EXAMPLE in Figure five: Frequency response of the open-loop transfer function.

The open-loop frequency response is an important visual aid for phase margin and gain margin, which are the indicators of system stability. The physical meaning of this expression is that when an output. This positive feedback tends increase the position error instead of reducing it —potentially making the system unstable.

To become unstable, the feedback of actual position X needs to be positive, but it also must be equal or greater than the reference signal Xr with a gain equal or greater than 1. In this unstable condition, the servo controller pumps in external energy to the system that continuously increases the oscillation amplitude of the stage.

If we look at the response to the step input in time domain as shown in Figure six: System response to a step input in time. Centralia St. Elkhorn, WI Phone: This is a safety margin to stability, which is called phase margin. Bandwidth considerations for design work Another aspect of the closed-loop transfer function H s is that when the open-loop gain K s G s is very high, the closed-loop system gain is about 1.

When the open-loop gain is very low, the closed-loop transfer function resembles the open-loop transfer function. The frequency at that point is called the position bandwidth. Consider one example.

So we expect the servo system to drive the stage with a very small position error in all frequencies lower than the bandwidth. Above the bandwidth frequency, the servo system may be incapable of following the input position without error. Similarly, if disturbing forces act on the stage at higher frequencies than the bandwidth, the servo may be incapable of rejecting them, and other means such as feedforward loops — beyond the scope of this article may be required.

A fourth is mounted to a table and wheeled between tasks. The application required no scripting and was created by a journeyman machinist with minimal training. Scan code to read case study and watch the video: www. Here, we simply add a zero to the stiffness value and then click RUN.

We see that natural frequency increased as expected by a factor of sqrt 10 to Also notice that the bandwidth dropped from its original value of 10 to about 1 Hz and the settling-time response became sluggish. This shift decreased the position bandwidth and slowed down the stage.

To increase the low-frequency gain which was lost in the previous iteration we may try to increase the integral gain Ki by a factor of 10 by adding a 0 to the integral gain value Ki and clicking RUN.

Results in Figure seven: Servo tuning process with PI gain changes show the left side of the trough increased, bandwidth went back to about 10 Hz, and the resulting response became faster yet oscillatory. As mentioned, this is one condition to ensure system stability. Another condition for stability is gain margin — the distance in dB between the zero-dB line and the open-. Figure eight shows it to be about 15 dB, which occurs at about 80 Hz. The chart in figure eight also shows the phase margin and the bandwidth as discussed earlier.

The rationale of the gain-margin requirement for stability is like that of the phase margin. When the phase is , we need to ensure that output is lower than the input with a gain magnitude of less than 1.

Otherwise, the servo will command the motor to add increasing energy to the system, which increases output indefinitely — and makes the system unstable. Results may be noticeable as loud audible noise, high vibration, and at high enough gain and low enough damping a possible catastrophic failure. Servo systems are typically tuned to gain margins greater than 15 dB.

Mechanical improvements for better design performance To attenuate the ringing effect as shown in figure seven and shorten the settling time response, we can try to increase the mechanical damping. As shown in figure nine, increasing the mechanical damping B by a factor of 10 gives a smoother motion profile and reduced settling time — from longer than msec in the previous iteration to msec in this one.

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System optimization with multiple iterations We may continue the iterative process of tuning system parameters for optimal performance by trial and error or by recommended tuning processes.

Several widely used tuning techniques involve a PID parameter that is changed until the stage starts ringing. Then, the parameter value is reduced and the next parameter is increased until it resonates the system again.

This process continues until the designer gets a good settling profile and the settling time is minimized to an acceptable value. An example of what a good tuning profile may look like in time domain is shown in Figure ten: Optimal system performance. Settling time in this iteration is reduced to Note that the webtool presented in this article is provided as a courtesy of Optinet Inc.

The webtool is primarily intended as a self-study tutorial of simultaneous effects that PID and mechanical parameters have on the performance and stability of automated mechanical systems. Innovative design enhancements make flat cables strong candidates for applications where round cable was once the natural choice. Edited by: Mary C. Flat cable has been around for about 60 years, since Cicoil invented the ribbon cable for IBM computers in Over the decades it has been a favorite in high end computing, military and aerospace, robotics and motion control devices.

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A rectangular cross-section lets flat cables stack or layer with almost no wasted space between cables, providing maximum conductor density for a given volume. Flexibility — Flat cable is extremely flexible when bent in the plane of its thin cross-section.

This flexibility has been used in applications where continuous or high flexing is necessary, as in drawers, doors, rotating arms, and so forth.

Greater strength — Flat cables have high strength because all conductors and insulators equally share tensile loads. Consistent electrical qualities — The conductor spacing is fixed and the geometry of the cable is constant. This geometry brings consistent electrical qualities that include impedance, capacitance, inductance, time, delay, crosstalk and attenuation.

Greater current-carrying capacity — Flat cables. Consequently, flat cables dissipate heat more efficiently. This thermal efficiency lets them handle a higher current level for a given temperature rise and conductor cross-section.

This minimizes time delays between signals within a given flat cable. High-density interconnections — Flat cable has a high wire-to-cable cross-sectional density. So layers of flat cable pack more efficiently and provide a higher conductor density than in round cables. Ease of handling — Flat cable folds and bends readily, conforms to the mounting area, fastens easily with clamps, adhesive, or double-faced tape, eliminating the installation and lacing difficulties associated with round wire cabling.

Conductors are visible and in a fixed position within the dielectric, a factor that simplifies coding, inspection, and circuit tracing.

Most cable is round, which is a generally useful geometry. These layers are there to retain a round profile and to minimize frictional heating as the cable moves. Surrounding the wires and fillers is an outer jacket that holds it all together and.

But, while round cable is normally fine for general use, there are drawbacks with this construction. Because it incorporates these multiple layers of wires, insulation, and fillers, heat dissipation from the wires can be problematic in round cable.

Despite measures to reduce it there is still frictional heat produced inside the cable during repetitive motion cycles. Add to this the issue of electrical impedance alteration as conductors inside the cable move relative to one another. With flat cable each conductor is kept parallel with neighboring conductors to form the flat profile.

Similarly, the conductors in the cable all have the same physical and electrical length. Thus signal skewing and differential time delays between signals in the cable stay at a minimum.

Flat cable, as produced by Cicoil, isolates each conductor within the cable, keeping them stable and stationary. The result is that they need no low-friction tapes or fillers. This has the added advantage of reducing both weight and volume, which provides maximum packaging efficiency. And the greater surface to volume ratio of the flat form factor also dissipates heat far better. The larger surface area and heat dissipating capability enables. Whether your application is for precise motion control or for general power transmission, there are several gear technologies that can do the job.

But which one does it best? Only DieQua offers the widest range of gearmotors, speed reducers and servo gearheads along with the experience and expertise to help you select the optimal solution to satisfy your needs. C a b l e s flat cables to carry a higher current for a given temperature rise, and for conductors of a given cross section. Furthermore, the flat form factor means that within the plane of its thin cross section, flat cables exhibit far more inherent flexibility than equivalent round cables.

Ultimately, where signal-to-noise purity, flexibility, heat, weight and volume efficiencies are paramount, flat cables have better inherent performance values than found in round cable.

Until now round cable deficiencies have been tolerated, and engineered around, because it is very common and tooling exists for efficient terminating and assembly. Our gearmotors, motors and controls are engineered to give you flawless performance year after year. From design to delivery, you can count on Bodine for the best gearmotor solution. A new generation of flat cable combines ease of use with inherent advantages.

Called EZ-Flexx, it is constructed to be as easy to work with as common round cables, while also providing a long flex life and all the other features and benefits of traditional, highperformance flat cable.

Ordinary manual or automated wire stripping tools can handle the stripping process. Conductors comprising an EZ-Flexx flat cable are easily split from the cable body revealing a traditional round.

The process is straightforward: Split out the individual conductors in the cable, strip the outer jacket from the end of the conductors, strip the inner conductor insulation, and apply the connector in the usual way. It is useful to understand the capabilities of modern EZ-Flexx flat cable by examining some older flat cabling technologies. As noted earlier, the flat ribbon cable was introduced by Cicoil in for early mainframe computers.

Ribbon cable allowed companies like IBM to replace bulky, stiff round cables with a low-profile alternative that could be terminated easily through use of insulation displacement connectors IDCs. Ribbon cable is inexpensive and has a standard geometry.

A point to note is that ribbon cable is not really comparable to modern flat cable such as EZ-Flexx. Plus, ribbon cables use just a single. And finally, ribbon cable can emit electromagnetic interference in the absence of extra shielding. Another type of flat cable uses a simple external sheath, often of PTFE branded by Dupont as Teflon , to enclose bundles of conductors. Unlike ribbon cable or extruded flat cable like EZ-Flexx, wires in the PTFE jacket are not held in place within the jacketing material.

They can creep from their initial position, or be pulled out of place, by forces from the terminating connections. To head off such difficulties, PTFE flat cable may employ clamps at regular intervals along the. PTFE jackets are also relatively brittle, and can crack with repetitive flexing, exposing the internal wires.

Another type of flat conductor technology is that of flex circuits. These are basically flexible versions of printed circuit boards. They are usually comprised of conductive traces either screen printed or plated onto, or sandwiched between, flexible plastic substrates. The usual application for flex circuits is in forming a connection between circuit boards where space is at a premium and the geometries involved are difficult for ordinary connectors to handle.

Flex circuits. Get inspired with his keynote, then discover a full spectrum of industry solutions ushering in a new era of manufacturing — all on one show floor. Six leading shows. One powerful event. June 13 – 15, Jacob K. Make the Connections. Gain the Insights. Moreover, because their conductors have dimensions that are on the order of circuit board traces, flex circuits have a limited ability to handle high power levels or lengthy trace runs. Flat versus contoured cable. Cicoil extruded flat cables are defined as a group of conductors electrical, liquid or gas tubing, fiber-optics aligned in parallel, and completely, seamlessly encapsulated in an insulating, protective jacket.

Cicoil invented the patented extrusion process employed to manufacture this type of flat cable. EZ-Flexx flat cables consist of a variety of color-coded PFA-insulated electrical conductors, and Teflon or polyurethane tubing elements, which are encapsulated overall within an ultra-pure, engineered rubber jacket. This proprietary engineered rubber is called Flexx-Sil, and delivers a number of useful properties.

The distinguishing feature of EZFlexx flat cable is the combination of roundprofile conductors extruded with a Flexx-Sil encapsulation that maintains the individual round wire form factor needed for common hand and automated stripping equipment. A thin Flexx-Sil rubber strip — part of the overall extrusion — connects each of the individual elements to form the flat cable. Multiple conductor bundles can be separated out from a single cable, each terminated with their own connector. Each conductor is kept parallel with neighboring conductors.

Virtually any type of electrical conductors required for power, signal, video and data may incorporated into EZ-Flexx cable. This includes bare wire, insulated and shielded conductors, twisted pair, tri-axial, and coax, etc. EZ-Flexx flat cables work well in applications characterized by extreme environments, motion, and challenging space constraints. They are particularly durable, and advantageous where other kinds of cable fall short.

EZ-Flexx cable excels at motion applications because the wire is extremely supple, as it is made from multiple bundles of fine AWG base strands.

This contrasts. Because a flat profile takes up less volume than comparative round wire when stacked or bundled, EZ-Flexx saves valuable space.

These cables are encapsulated with jackets made of Flexx-Sil. From inspiration and advice to referrals and job opportunities, your contacts can help you tackle tough challenges. C a b l e s Flat cable, like this one pictured in black and white, was first used on mainframe computers. Flexx-Sil rubber is extruded seamlessly around each cable element to form a single flat cable, and it is crystal clear so the individual conductors are visible.

And the PFA jacket insulating each of the conductors is color coded for easy gauge size identification anywhere along the cable length. Flexx-Sil provides flexibility while protecting conductors against sudden impact, severe vibration, and extreme G forces.

Flexx-Sil requires no conduit for protection. It is tear resistant, and is self-healing from small punctures. And it maintains flexibility and operation integrity in extreme temperatures, as already noted. Flexx-Sil has passed UL 94V0 flammability testing. It is also waterproof including immersion , resists most chemicals, and operates for years in intense UV and sunlight conditions.

EZ-Flexx flat cable has introduced a new paradigm in flat cable design — one that reduces the need to engineer around the performance limitations of round cable.

The innovative cable marries flat cable performance-enhancing attributes such as Flexx-Sil jacketing and ultra-flex, fine-stranded wire conductors, with a physical profile matching that of standard wires found in common round cable. EZ-Flexx introduces the first flat cable ready for use with industrystandard assembly tooling and presents a costeffective solution.

When progress comes at you fast, learning keeps you competitive. The material construction of the pumps and actuators has been important, of course, but even a hundred years ago the technology existed to build steel components capable of thousands of pounds influential contributor to high power of fluid power systems realized today.

A seal has one job; separate two spaces from each other to prevent fluid air or liquid from reaching the other side. The seal can get more advanced, such as with a dynamic seal designed to separate high pressure fluid while allowing movement between two sliding or rotating surfaces.

The O-ring is literally as elementary as a seal can be; simply a round cord of rubber shaped in a circle. It is typically a static seal, meaning it remains stationary to prevent pressurized fluid from escaping a pump case, cylinder cap or cartridge valve et al.

However, they can be used in economical dynamic applications, courtesy of Freudenberg-NOK such as a rod or piston seal in an air cylinder, or the spool seal in a directional valve. When used as a static seal, there are only considerations for pressure capacity and fluid compatibility. Higher pressure O-rings are made from a harder synthetic rubber to prevent extrusion out of gaps in the components.

Also, should exotic fluids be used in a hydraulic system, synthetic polymers resistant to these fluids can be used to improve longevity. Sealing between two moving components is critical to any fluid power system, because without that movement, a cylinder is just a steel rod and a motor is just a shaft. The challenge in sealing two There is a balance between these two extremes, and often the individual application dictates what type of seal is used. The lip seal is the most common seal used in dynamic applications, because it exerts little friction—especially at low pressure—but its inherent nature ensures excellent sealing at high pressure.

The lip seal cross section often looks like a U, so it is often referred to as a U-Cup. The shape. You can also see by the shape of the U-Cup that pressure exerted upon the seal forces the lips apart, increasing sealing as pressure rises. Lips seals tend to have less static friction than other types of seals, such as an O-ring combined with backup rings.

Unfortunately, the U-Cup has poor sealing at low pressure, especially in static applications where the cylinder is meant to hold a load. More advanced seals have been developed, which marry various technologies resulting in a more superior all-around seal. The loaded U-Cup is still a U-Cup, so it has the effect of increasing sealing as pressure rises.

Although the level of pressureinduced sealing is less than a full U-Cup, it provides an excellent compromise between two mechanisms. A further evolution of the loaded U-Cup is the crown seal, which looks liked an inverted loaded U-cup with the O-Ring on the bottom side.

The crown seal, which can be molded or machined from one pieced of polymer or made from two to four components, is excellent for very high pressure applications. How a seal is installed is just as important as it shape or composition. With half the bend radius of most R13 and R15 hoses, the Eaton EC X-FLEX spiral hydraulic hose is significantly easier to route in tight spaces, helping installers use less force and less hose per job. Whether an O-Ring, piston seal, shaft seal or mechanical seal, the cavity dimensions must be accurate as to prevent damage, leakage, friction, increased wear or fitment issues.

All seal manufacturers list the seal installation requirements in their catalogues, so be sure to heed them. After the seal type and installation is carefully considered, the specifics of the application must be considered. Early dynamic hydraulic seals were made from leather, which would be pressed or molded into usable U-cup or V-packing shapes capable of holding over 1, psi or more. Dynamic seals could also have been made from impregnated fiber materials, which can also be moulded.

Static seals could have been made from cork or even natural rubber. Most naturally sourced materials are perfectly suited to handle a fair magnitude of pressure, but were poor for longevity. As synthetic rubber technology improved, they antiquated the use of natural materials in fluid power applications. Buna Nitrile synthetic rubber is now the most common material used for hydraulic component sealing, as it has good general fluid compatibility, is easy to manufacture, and when properly applied, is capable of high pressure applications.

Exotic fluids, such as high-water based fluids used in fire resistant hydraulic applications, are not compatible with nitrile. In these cases, polyurethane is used, which is suitable for use with additives such as glycol. Polyurethane is also excellent for high pressure and high temperature applications, although if extreme heat is seen, there are other options.

For high temperature applications, fluorocarbon aka Viton seals are often used. The downside to fluorocarbon is that it is softer than what can be had in nitrile. Because of its softness, Viton is often de-rated for pressure—such as a piston lip seal, for example. The softness of rubber is rated using shore hardness or durometer.

A higher durometer rubber is more rigid and resistant to forming than the jelly I described earlier. Standard 70 durometer nitrile rubber is good for general applications where pressure is moderate. As pressure increases, seals can be damaged or extruded, so 80 or 90 durometer polymers can be applied, which resist deformation better.

Seals are indeed the unsung heroes of fluid power. They are necessary for hydraulic to achieve its legendary might, but are often overlooked for their importance. A little thought put into seals will ensure your fluid power application is efficient, reliable and performs optimally. Highly remote locations call for Tadiran batteries. Battery replacement is costly and often dangerous work.

With an annual self-discharge rate of just 0. Our batteries also feature the highest capacity, highest energy density, and widest temperature range of any lithium cell, plus a glass-tometal hermetic seal for added ruggedness and reliability in extreme environments.

Tadiran Batteries Marcus Ave. Advanced lithium batteries extend the reach of WirelessHART and other communications protocols to help the IoT expand into extreme environments.

Nearly 30 million HART-enabled devices are currently in use worldwide, supporting a wide range of applications, including process control and asset management, safety systems, machine-tomachine M2M , and system control and data automation SCADA.

The HART protocol employs Bell Frequency Shift Keying analog phone caller ID technology to superimpose digital signals on top of analog signals, providing an easily configurable low-cost field communications solution. This cost constraint is even more problematic in remote, environmentally sensitive locations, where logistical, regulatory, and permitting requirements can delay projects and cause expenses to skyrocket. Fortunately, for many remote applications the need for hard-wiring has been largely eliminated by the.

As part of this technology shift, wireless mesh networks will be used to form redundant, self-healing networks. Choosing between consumer and industrial grade batteries Remote wireless devices that require long-life power predominantly rely upon primary non-rechargeable lithium batteries.

However, a small percentage of applications will be well suited for some form of energy harvesting device in combination with a rechargeable Lithium-Ion Li-Ion battery to store the harvested energy. Since a remote wireless device is only as reliable as its power supply, each device must be optimized based on application-specific requirements.

Generally, the more remote the application, the more likely the need for an industrialgrade lithium battery.

Inexpensive consumer-grade alkaline batteries can be considered for certain applications that are easily accessible and which operate within a moderate temperature range. However, alkaline batteries are not well suited to long-term industrial applications due to inherent limitations, including low voltage 1.

The low initial cost of a consumer-grade battery is often highly misleading, as the typical cost to replace a battery far exceeds that of the battery itself. For instance, consider all the labor costs involved to replace batteries in a remote fluid flow monitoring system or in a structural stress sensor attached to a bridge abutment.

To accurately judge whether a short-lived consumer-grade alkaline battery is a worthy investment, you must calculate the lifetime cost of the power supply, factoring in all the labor and material costs associated with future battery replacements. Industrial grade lithium batteries are commonly specified when the following performance features are required:.

Reliability—the remote sensor is deployed in a hard-to-reach location where battery replacement is difficult or impossible, and the flow of data cannot be interrupted by poorly functioning batteries. Trade-offs are inevitable, so your list of desired performance attributes needs to be prioritized.

Choosing among primary lithium batteries If the application calls for an industrial grade lithium battery, then several performance variables may need to be considered, including: energy consumed in active mode including the size, duration, and frequency of pulses ; energy consumed in standby mode the base current ; storage time as.

Lithium battery chemistry is suitable for long-term deployments because its intrinsic negative potential exceeds that of all other metals. Lithium is also the lightest non-gaseous metal, and offers the highest specific energy energy per unit weight and energy density energy per unit volume of all available battery chemistries. Lithium cells, all of which use a non-aqueous electrolyte, feature a normal operating current voltage OCV that ranges between 2.

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